In addition to fallacies of evidence, proof, and argument, there are at least two major fallacies related to particular persuasive designs. Either—or thinking. sometimes called false dilemma, makes listeners think that they have only two choices—one desirable, the other not. This fallacy is attractive because it is dramatic: It satisfies our yen for conflict and simplicity. It occurs in political behavior when we think we must choose between two political parties. It shows up in policy debates: “Pass our ‘Contract with America,” say the Republicans, “or accept a doomed America.”“If you pass the Republican ‘Contract on America,” answer the Democrats, “you will sacrifice our basic values.” Either—or thinking blinds listeners to other options, such as compromise or creative alternatives that have not yet been considered. Such thinking often infests problem-solution speeches when speakers oversimplify the choices to encourage commitment to their cause. We should be wary of being boxed into either—or decisions by impassioned speakers.
People who have gardens sometimes make up a “straw man” to scare off crows. As the name suggests, the straw is formed into the “likeness” of a man. (Presumably, a “straw woman” would work as well, as far as the crows are concerned!) Whatever the gender, the “straw man” is obviously much less than what it represents. From this name comes the straw man fallacy. making up a “likeness” of an opponent’s view that makes it seem trivial, ridiculous, or easy to refute. As you might suspect, the straw man fallacy appears most often in speeches that contend with opposition. It understates and distorts the position of opponents, and is unethical. Dismissing Steve Forbes’s “flat tax” proposal as simply an effort to reduce his own taxes was a “straw man” of the 1996 Republican primaries, as the candidates trashed each other with negative ads. As an ethical persuasive speaker, you have an obligation to represent an opposing position fairly and fully, even as you refute it. Only then will critical listeners respect you and your arguments. The straw man fallacy is an implicit admission of weakness or desperation and can damage what may well be a legitimate case.
Persuasion is constantly threatened by flaws and deception. In a world of competing views, we often see human nature revealed in its petty as well as its finer aspects. As you plan and present your arguments or listen to the arguments of others, be on guard against fallacies.